Badlands National Park

While it is interesting to see the wildlife of Badlands National Park, the real star here is the geology. The soils that can be seen in the exposed cliffs were laid down for tens of millions of years or more. Both the colors and shapes of the badlands are evidence of the geological history of this part of South Dakota.

At the bottom of the deep ravines, a dark grey material is the oldest of the visible strata. This rock, says signs in the park, is known as Pierre Shale (described by the U.S. Geological Survey as "dark-gray clay shale with calcareous and ferruginous concretions and sandy members") and is the result of sedimentary mud that once lay at the bottom of a sea that covered what is now Badlands National Park. Because of its origin, this layer contains fossils of sea life such as ammonites, early clams, and baculites.

The Pierre Shale was deposited over the Upper Cretaceous period, also known as the Late Cretaceous period which lasted from about 98 million years ago to about 65 million years ago. At the end of that time, the vast sea that covered this part of North America receded mainly due to the rising elevation of the area caused by tectonic activity (the shifting of the Earth's plates). The sea floor mud formed fertile ground and not long after the waters retreated, geologically speaking, it was covered by a thick jungle.

Yellow Mounds Paleosol and Interior Paleosol

Decaying plant material mixed with the top layers of the Pierre Shale over the next 28 million years or so, resulting in a layer of yellowish soil. This layer is called the Yellow Mounds Paleosol. At some point around 37 million years ago, the jungle was covered by new sediments carried from the west. The minerals contained in this layer of soil were different than those of the Pierre Shale, so when the jungle grew up again in this new layer, the action of the plants and the organic material they mixed with it resulted in a soil with a strong reddish tint. This layer is called the Interior Paleosol.

The Colors of the Yellow Mounds Paleosol and the
reddish purple Interior Paleosol are visible on the steep sides
of deep ravines in Badlands National Park.
Photo by Brad Sylvester. Copyright 2011, all rights reserved.

Both the Yellow Mounds and Interior Paleosols were later covered again, becoming packed and fossilized by the weight of later sediments. Their distinctive coloration, however, can be seen in the cliff-sides exposed by erosion over the millenia.

Popcorn Rock or Bentonite Clay

More hints about the geologic history of Badlands National Park can be found in the make-up of much of the top layers of soil within the park. Although the area gets little rainfall for most of the year, the soil through much of the roughest areas of the park looks like dried mud. Indeed, it is, but mud of a very interesting nature.

It is a clay called Bentonite by geologists, but known as ball clay or popcorn rock in the local vernacular because of its unique properties. When it does rain in this arid part of South Dakota, The South Dakota Badlands Bentonite, because it contains sodium instead of calcium as it does in some other regions, says John P. Bluemle, absorbs the water and expands to many times its original size. The repeated expansion and contraction as it dries again causes it to break up so instead of a smooth surface, you end up with rough balls of hard packed clay that are an inch or two in diameter.

Bentonite or Popcorn Rock covers many of the steep hillsides
in Badlands National Park.
Photo by Brad Sylvester. Copyright 2011. Do not copy.

These clay balls will often break away from the hillside and roll down the into the ravine when they get wet. When this happens, their soft outer surface will often pick up pebbles as it rolls. If you look carefully at the bottoms of the gullies, you might find some of these clay balls that look like someone took hours to stud them with a variety of small rocks.

Bentonite is formed from the breakdown of volcanic rock and ash. With the super-sized volcanic caldera of Yellowstone National Park lying not too far to the northwest of Badlands National Park, it's pretty easy to determine the origin of the badlands bentonite.

Clastic Dikes

Clastic dikes run down the center of many of the clay hills
of Badlands National Park.
Photo by Brad Sylvester. Copyright 2011. Do not copy.

Another interesting geologic feature helps to give the badlands its rugged appearance. Clastic dikes are vertical wall-like structures of harder rock that erodes more slowly than the surrounding bentonite and paleosols. The result is that it often looks like the spine of the mountains, sticking up with vertical sides from the surrounding rock and soil. Clastic dikes are interesting formations that also tell us something about the history of this land.

According to Harman D. Maher Jr. of the University of Nebraska at Omaha's Department of Geology and Geography, it is believed that clastic dikes are formed when tectonic activity causes the ground to move in such as way as to open up deep crevices. These open crevices are quickly filled in either from above or possibly from liquefied material being forced up from below. This filling material solidifies almost like cement leaving a vertical wall of harder rock encased in softer surrounding soils.

Because of the way it is formed, the material of the clastic dikes may be of a different geological age than much of the material surrounding it. Furthermore, sometimes these crevices open and fill more than once. So if a clastic dike already existed and the same crevice opens again, but wider, the original clastic dike may be encased in a another layer of material, showing several vertical layers of different types of rock when the clastic dike is eventually exposed by erosion.

Source note: Much of the geologic history of the Badlands is told by signage within the park itself or was related to me by park rangers, and it is these that serve as the primary resource for the geological history that I relate here. Where other sources are used, they are referenced within the text.

Odiorne Point State Park and the Seacoast Science Center in New Hampshire

Not everyplace worth visiting is a multi-million dollar theme park or a world famous landmark. Some of them are small and quiet and only known to local residents and those who look really hard for interesting places to visit. Odiorne Point State Park in Rye, New Hampshire fits into the latter category. While it's not the sort of place you pack your family into an airplane to go visit from halfway across the country, it is the kind of place that will fill a day with enjoyable family activities if you happen to find yourself within driving distance of seacoast New Hampshire.

Odiorne Point State Park is home to the Seacoast Science Center which offers a variety of experiences and exhibits ranging from detailed histories of shipwrecks that have occurred right off the coast, to artifacts and accounts of the original settlers who founded one of the nations earliest homestead communities at the site. There is also ample opportunity to learn about the sea creatures who live in the Gulf of Maine.

Outside, of course, there are beaches, hiking and biking trails, a small playground, picnic areas, and some incredible World War II bunkers and gun placements that were built to look like part of the natural landscape so they could not be readily spotted by enemy ships should any approach from across the Atlantic. You can see inside the bunkers whose size is almost beyond comprehension and you can stand on the gun emplacements and see how they could command the waterways for miles.

A full recounting of the activities available and my own family's trip to to Odiorne Point State Park and the Seacoast Science is available here.

Walt Disney World's Behind the Seeds Tour at Epcot

I’ve been to Walt Disney World in Orlando, Florida, three times. That is to say, I’ve vacationed there in three different years for 7-10 days on each trip. The fact that I went back several times should be a hint as to whether I enjoyed it. Rather than review the entire thing, I’m going to break it down into several parts.  Today, I’m going to discuss the Behind the Seeds Tour at Disney’s Epcot theme park.

The Behind the seeds tour takes you backstage of the Living with the Land ride. On the ride, you see brief glimpses of some of the amazing greenhouse plants that are growing in the pavilion, but you’re riding by at the pace set by the boat in which you ride, and you don’t get the opportunity to linger, ask questions, and see all the stuff that’s hiding behind the curtain.

The Behind the Seeds tour is for those with a little more curiosity. Each tour group walks through the greenhouses and past the aquaculture tanks and gets to see how Disney grows mouse ears on pumpkins among other marvels.  In the greenhouse, for example, they have a giant tomato plant that, our tour guide told us, can produce more than 1150 pounds of tomatoes all by itself over the course of its 18 month lifespan.

Guests of the Behind the Seeds tour will learn how to make basic hydroponics systems in their own home and will learn about the various kinds of hydroponics systems. Much of what Disney grows there is done hydroponically and the vegetables and fruits produced on site are used in the meals prepared by resort’s restaurants.

The tour guides, as you would expect, are very knowledgeable and are willing to take as much time as it takes to make sure everyone’s questions are answered. Guests also get to feed the tilapia in the aquaculture tanks. There is also an alligator pond in the aquaculture area as well.  When you get a little tired of whizzing around on all the rides and want to stimulate your brain and actually learn a little something, The Behind the Seeds Tour is certainly one of my favorite attractions at Disney World.

The tour lasts about an hour and costs $18 per person (on top of your Walt Disney World entrance fee). Children aged 3-9 pay just $14 each, but honestly, those at the younger end of that range should probably skip this tour. Sure, they’ll enjoy throwing a handful of feed to the fish and seeing the Mickey Mouse shaped pumpkins, but learning about nutrient film hydroponics systems is not nearly as exciting as Mr. Toad’s Wild Ride and their patience will certainly be tested. Teens and naturally inquisitive kids will love it though and it makes a great change of pace for those who are spending several days on their Disney Vacation.